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Annotated Bibliography

Gender-sensitive issues in technology based curriculum and instruction

This annotated bibliography explores educational research and programs that involve technology and how curriculum and teaching with technology can serve as barriers or support for student learning. The literature challenges 'established' educational theories and existing frameworks that hinder educational achievement and participation in the field of technology, and suggests alternatives involving new learner-centered approaches. The bibliography cites examples of gender-sensitive curriculum and teaching methods in the field of computer-based learning.

Biases in Technology Programs

Menzies, H. Women-Centered Learning in a Digital Universe. Paper presented at Canadian Congress for Learning Opportunities for Women. Montreal. March 1997.
The digital age, where global networks represent the new work environment, is creating a two-tiered workforce, with new skills and performance standards necessary to compete. This polarization due to the emerging digital universe, is moving into the education and learning sphere, creating a culture of 'knowledge workers.' Menzies cites a 1992 report on computer use in US schools that found well-funded schools were teaching their students to create multimedia presentations with the support of teacher-facilitators, while the poorer schools were using computers for drill work and computers were in effect replacing teaching (the dumbing-down concept of education.) Menzies states the global networks of the new digital economy will create a new type of colonization, which will include public sector institutions such as education and health. The over-development in technology is causing a rift so that the traditional forms of media and people associated with them are becoming marginalized. Menzies purports that women will be the ones heavily marginalized unless special measures are enacted to provide access and support to be able to manipulate the technology and be able to flourish in the new digital age.

Frenkel, K. "Women and Computing" Communications of the ACM, v33 n11 Nov. 1990.
This article examines the trend that many women who are opting for careers in technology are opting out of academia, or do not pursue advanced degrees, but rather enter industry jobs. Researchers believe that many girls and women are uncomfortable with the stereotype of the 'computer culture'. In addition, current computer science curricula that emphasizes divisions of functions is counter-intuitive to the way many women learn. Therefore, this male-centered curricula design causes women to lose interest in the courses. In addition, female computer science students reported discrimination both subtle and overt, that had 'acute consequences on their self-confidence, ability to perform, and career advancement opportunities' (Etzkowitz). The lack of female faculty for female students to turn to as mentors and role models added to the problem.

Zuga, K. "Addressing Women's Ways of Knowing to Improve the Technology Education Environment for All Students." Journal of Technology Education. V10 n2 p.57-71, spring 1996.
This article uses various feminist theories as a basis to question the way science, and later technology has been developed and taught. Zuga criticizes traditional philosophers of science such as Bacon, Descartes, and Perry, who contributed to the creation of the Western model of science as masculine, dominant and rational, and nature as feminine and passive. Zuga uses the term 'feminists of the new moral vision' to assert eco-feminism and cultural feminism, and not radical feminism is the means necessary to promote 'the value of women's ways of thinking and acting' in the technology sphere. The article asserts that technology educators should re-examine their own philosophies and views of technology that may be 'value-laden' by traditional hegemonic practice. Zuga concludes that educators should study feminist theories to develop new methods for teaching girls/women in technology programs. Furthermore, Zuga asserts social reconstruction framework can address issues of other underrepresented groups by giving them a voice to "…subvert prescriptive technologies in favor of redemptive technologies."

Classroom Dynamics

Dixon, C., "Action, Embodiment and Gender in the Design and Technology Classroom." Gender in Secondary Education Balancing the Books. Ed. A. Clark and E. Millard. London: Routledge, 1998. 145-162.
This chapter discusses a 1994-96 study involving narratives of how 13 and 14 yr. olds' daily exchanges in the classroom construct the meaning of gender, schooling and class. The assessment views the students "…not only as 'learners' but also an individual with a life history of class, gender, ethnicity, with a psychology of desire and fear." Through student and teacher interactions in the technology workshop the author purports that the set-up of the technology workshop classroom reflects a 'site of bodily power' (as defined by Morgan, 1993). This socially-constructed site is conducive or permissive of particular forms of dominant and aggressive male actions. Females in the class react by either voluntary or imposed deferral of their space that result in situations of "marginalization and exclusion from equal participation." The teacher's role should be to devise a new model for the classroom where females can be "seen and heard."

Opie., C., "Gender Issues in Information Technology." Gender in Secondary Education Balancing the Books. Ed. A. Clark and E. Millard. London: Routledge, 1998. 80-95.
The author asserts that schools should assist parents in acquiring computer skills along with their children. Schools need to define a clear anti-sexist pedagogy. Students must have a supportive framework in which to test their own ideas. Such measures as decreasing the amount of competitive projects and increasing co-operative group activities in order to provide a more conducive atmosphere for girls' learning is suggested. However, interventionist strategies must not only focus around 'equity' issues in school but also address societal factors such as attitudes and expectations towards girls and technology.

Gender Preferences in Design

Cassell, J. and Jenkins, H. From Barbie to Mortal Kombat Gender and Computer Games. Cambridge, MA : MIT Press, 1998. Storytelling as a Nexus of change in the Relationship between Gender and Technology: A Feminist Approach to Software Design, Ch. 13, pp.298-302. Many software programs or sites designed specifically for girls promote traditional stories of girlhood that favor an 'ideal type of girl audience' and trains girls to model prescribed societal roles. Cassell asserts that software, instead of predetermining roles, can allow children to 'try out' their identities and explore the possibilities of expression and in doing so they will find ways to understand their social sphere and develop an understanding of themselves. Cassell proposes that technology take on a 'performative' role by allowing students to construct their own gender identities. The postmodern view of gender as being 'performative' implies "…that it is both socially constructed and capable of being explored on a personal level and played in different ways in different contexts" (Butler, 1990; Sedgewick 1993). An example of a storytelling activity would provide students with an opportunity to construct their own identity, including their gender, in their own way rather than having it already be determined for them.

Kafai, Y.,"Gender Differences in Children's Constructions of Video Games." Interacting with Video. Ed. P. Greenfield and R. Cocking. New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Co., 1996. 39-66.
This article is based on the Game Design Project (Kafai, 1993, 1995) where 16 fourth-graders designed software to assist third-graders in learning fractions. "The most notable differences between boys and girls' designs were in the character development and design of feedback. " Girls preferred to name their character "a generic or more personal 'you'", whereas boys preferred fantasy characters. Girls preferred non-violent to violent feedback.

Miller, L., Chaika, M., and Groppe, L., "Girls' Preference in Software Design: Insights from a Focus Group" Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st Century. V4 n2 pp. 27-36, April 1996.
The authors assert that " …games are typically the first encounter that children have with computers. However, gaming strategies for computers almost always conform to the characteristics desired by boys." (Huff and Cooper, 1987). In this study teachers were asked to design software for their seventh grade girls. The programs designed indicated to the researchers that "the expectations the software designers hold about the users of the software they design is central in determining the way the software design interacts with the user." The National Science Foundation conducted a pilot study with Rice University to investigate 30 adolescent girls' preference in software. The findings reflected the following phenomena: manual as the last resort: no girls' sought assistance from the manual, non-closure/exploration: participants didn't reach closure before moving to the next game, willingness to explore in an unstructured way, rich texture: girls placed a high value on the quality of the audio/video environment, collaboration over competition, education over entertainment for older girls (10-12), virtual reality: girls experienced adventures like bungee jumping vicariously, career exploration; real-life simulations and role-playing associated with a variety of careers, interactions with males/soap opera and talk show replication/travel and cross-cultural communication: reflected the girls' social needs and communication-oriented aspects.

Turkle, S. 1984.The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit. New York: Simon and Schuster. pp. 104-110. A project where children designed a software program using LOGO. Turkle observed two types of preferred play behavior she defined as characteristic of 'hard' or 'soft masters'. Children who approached the project as hard masters seemed to perceive the world as something that should be brought under control. They liked games/toys where they could construct and operate. Hard masters exercised their will over the machine through the implementation of a plan. They viewed the computer as an abstract entity and identified with the abstract part of it. Soft masters treated the computer as a physical object and identified with it for purposes of fantasy play. Turkle asserts that soft masters see the world as beyond their direct control and something they need to accommodate. Soft masters' designs reflected an overall shape that emerged through the interaction with the medium, a rearranging rather than construction of elements. Turkle concludes that girls tend to be soft masters where as boys overwhelming tend to be hard masters.

Curriculum/instruction/classroom

Pryor, J., Enhancing Confidence in the Gender Sensitive Curriculum. National Association for Urban Studies, Lewis Cohen Urban Studies Centre, University of Brighton, United Kingdom. 1994.
Pryor asserts that children's beliefs about the cause of their difficulties have an influence on their ability to "cope with intellectual challenges." Children that believe their problems are short-term and controllable tend to respond with increased effort. On the other hand if children believe the problem is out of their control they will eventually enter into a state of 'learned helplessness' (Weiner, 1984). The author purports this is more characteristic among girls than boys as "… teachers attribute boys' success to flair and girls ' to hard work, boys' failure to laziness and girls' failure to insufficient ability" (Walkerdine, 1989). The research of Dweck and Licht, 1985, 1978 suggest these behaviors are socially-constructed and can be unlearned. In his research, Pryor used the Logo, software package to stimulate learned helplessness in girls. The features of the software Pryor used to elicit the response is that it is a "problem-solving program, with built in challenges, unfamiliar, with emphasis on giving commands, and clear 'right' or 'wrong answers." Due to the intervention of a female technology teacher, girls did not exhibit signs of learned helplessness, but rather gained confidence. The teacher emphasized process rather than the outcome or a specific result. She gave students as much time as they needed to complete the assignments so they could become familiar with the medium, and co-operation rather than competition, and the teacher took on a lesser role and allowed peers to take on a greater role in evaluating each other's projects. These tactics seem to offset the primary school children's (usually girls) anxieties and an extreme desire to conform and please as described by Weiner, 1980.

Littleton, K., "Girls and Information Technology." Equity in the Classroom Towards Effective Pedagogy for Girls and Boys. Ed. P. Murphy and C. Gipps. London: Falmer Press, 1996. 81-96.

Teacher Training

Morse. F.K., The Gender Gap in Computer Knowledge, Confidence, and Attitudes: What's Experience Got to Do With It? Thesis presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Education of Harvard University. Cambridge: Harvard University, 1996.
Based on a survey of 595 expert and novice computer-using educators (hardware, software, and programming), a majority of the sample thought programming should be required for computer literacy. No gender differences in computer attitudes were found however there were significant differences favoring men in confidence. Gender differences in knowledge and confidence can be explained by differences in computer experiences of men and women (Morse, p.173). Recommendations based on the study are that computer literacy for teachers should include hardware and programming to increase teacher confidence (especially women). The study found a strong relationship between knowledge, confidence, and computer experience. In this sample men knew more programming languages and had higher skills in all languages except LOGO.(Morse, p.165) The study concluded that if this trend continues women will be shaped by technology rather than be creators and designers of technology. Women are behind men in all types of experience, their role may become one of 'catch-up' rather than innovation. Women teachers may not be as involved in designing technology programs in their schools. Competing demands and priorities are restricting the amount of time female teachers have to experiment.(Becker, 1994 from Morse, p. 166) Cultural barriers arising from technology being seen as a male domain has the effect that women are reticent to use it and 'do less tinkering'. Recommendations are:

1) Hands on computer hardware training has positive affects on women's confidence.
2) Programming experience gives teachers the opportunity to control the computer and will boost confidence. There needs to be a broader view of computer literacy that includes hardware and programming experience. Limiting experience to understanding software programs will perpetuate the current knowledge gap in computer knowledge and confidence. In terms of use and comfort with computers, the 'quantity of use' is an important indicator in both knowledge and confidence.

However, it takes both quality and quantity of experience to account for knowledge differences between men and women. Programming experience narrows the gender gap in confidence. Programming assists in "…demistifying hardware and understanding software." (Morse)

Pryor, J. He, She and I. T.: Groupwork in a Gender-Sensitive Area. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the British Educational Research Association, Liverpool, England. Sept. 1993.
The purpose of this two-year study of a classroom of 9 and 10-year old students, was to first evaluate and then address ways to overcome gender bias in the use of computer technology in the classroom. The researcher used classroom observations, focus group interviews with students, and individual interviews with teachers for his study. During the pilot study, Pryor noted the boys' stereotypical dominance of computer technology in the classroom. This trend supported the current theories that 'boys were preparing themselves for power, while girls were preparing for powerlessness in this classroom process' (Spender, 1983.) Pryor also noted the boys' focus on goals/end-products versus girls' focus on process. He determined that the teacher's role was central in directing the learning process and setting up group dynamics, structure of assignments, and introducing female role models to the class. Although initially students performed according to their gender roles, with boys outperforming girls, once the gender-sensitive interventions were introduced there was a positive shift in girl's performance. These gender-sensitive interventions consisted of a female teacher who was well-versed in I.T., and interested in gender issues. The female teacher created male/female teams to work on assignments. She also introduced other women working in I.T. careers who came to speak and interact with the students. The female teacher emphasized process rather than end-product, and encouraged collaboration and co-operation rather than competition among peers. Both girls and boys attitudes became more similar as they both became accustomed to the collaborative working environment. Finally, the students reacted positively to having work partners with differing abilities, as opposed to feeling uncomfortable beforehand.

Research on causes of females' attrition in technology programs

Silvermann, S. and Pritchard, M. "Building Their Future: Girls and Technology Education in Connecticut." Journal of Technology Education. V7 n2, spring 1996.
This article is based on a 1993-94 research project carried out by Silvermann and Pritchard, examining girls' participation in technology classes in Connecticut middle schools. The researchers explored the theory that the same factors that caused girls to drop out of math and science classes also caused girls' attrition in technology classes. Phase 2 of the project focused on explaining the wide gender gap in participation in technology classes at the high school level. The research was carried out by direct observation of students in the classroom, and interviews with student focus groups and technology teachers, in addition to examining girls' state-wide enrollment rates in technology classes. The findings show that middle school girls in the study "enjoy and have confidence in their abilities, but there is an underlying sexism, that starts permeating and slowly veering girls away from pursuing further studies in the field. The study cites "emerging sexism among peers," traditionally male-oriented projects, like bridge building in a basic design class, and traditional male/female occupational stereotypes inhibited girls from pursuing more technology classes. In addition, when asked who had most encouraged them to take technology education classes, 71% of the middle school girls interviewed responded either they themselves, or someone other than their family, teachers, friends, or guidance counselors. The study concluded there is a similar set of factors that cause girls to drop out of technology classes as they do math and science classes. Among the reports recommendations are the call for more women technology teachers and role models, and establishing more of a connection between class assignments and real-world work to assist girls in envisioning themselves involved in technology as a career.