Research Digest
Adolescence: Are Parents Relevant to Students' High School Achievement and
Post-Secondary Attainment?
Evanthia N. Patrikakou, University of Illinois, Chicago, and Mid-Atlantic
Laboratory for Student Success
September 2004
Research Background
Adolescence is an intriguing stage of development filled with many physical,
cognitive, social, and emotional changes. At the same time, the increase in
academic demands and the complexity of the school structure make the task of
academic success for adolescents even more difficult. Because parent involvement
has been shown to be a very important positive force in a child's life (Patrikakou,
Weissberg, Redding & Walberg, in press), one would expect that during such
a critical and demanding phase the two most important environments in child
development, home and school, would increase their collaboration. The opposite
though is true: As children progress through school, parent involvement declines
dramatically (Zill & Nord, 1994). Several factors contribute to this paradoxical
decline: the more complex structure of middle and high schools, the demanding
curricula that can be intimidating to parents, and the fewer school outreach
efforts to involve parents. Or, is this decline of parent involvement just an
indication of an underlying decline of parent influence over adolescents? This
digest will explore paths by which parental involvement impacts achievement
in high school and beyond.
Research Methods
Data for this investigation were drawn from the National Educational Longitudinal
Study (NELS), an extensive longitudinal study, which has been constructed to
follow a cohort of students from the eighth grade through high school, college,
and into the workforce. The first wave of data were collected in 1988 when participants
were in eighth grade and they have been resurveyed four times (in 1990, 1992,
1994, and 2000).
The model used to explore parent involvement influences was constructed using
theoretical and empirical elements in the broader area of parent influences
and academic success. The model consists of three blocks of influence: first,
background factors such as gender and prior achievement, and parent involvement
factors such as parent expectations and parent-child communication; second,
the adolescent's perceptions of the parent involvement factors; and third, student
characteristics such as time spent on homework and the student's own academic
expectations.
The model was tested using structural modeling, a statistical procedure which
estimates both direct and indirect effects that different factors have on the
outcome under investigation. The two primary outcomes tested were academic achievement
in high school (measured by standardized scores) and post-secondary attainment
(measured by a 6-point scale ranging from some post-secondary education but
no degree attained to Ph.D. or a professional degree attained).
Research Findings
Several of the parent involvement factors measured when the adolescents were
in eighth grade had significant and lasting effects on the academic achievement
in later grades in high school, as well as on post-secondary attainment. Some
of the paths influencing both academic achievement in high school and post-secondary
attainment involve parent expectations and include the following:
Parent Expectations 
Achievement
The further in school parents believed their adolescents would go, the higher
the adolescents' academic achievement.
Parent Expectations
Perception of Parent Expectations
Student Expectations
Achievement
The further in school parents believed their adolescents would go, the clearer
the adolescents' perception of such expectations, the higher their own academic
expectations, the higher their academic achievement.
Parent Expectations
Perception of Parent Expectations
Time Spent on Homework
Achievement
The further in school parents believed their adolescents would go, the clearer
the adolescents' perception of such expectations, the more time they spent on
homework, the higher their academic achievement.
In agreement with findings from other studies (Catsambis, 2001), high educational
expectations constitute a powerful way through which parents can encourage continuously
the educational attainments of their adolescents in high school and beyond.
Implications for Teacher Preparation and School Practice
The long-lasting effects that parent involvement variables have on the academic
achievement of adolescents and young adults indicate that parent involvement
during high school and beyond still remains an important source of guidance
and support for the developing individual.
Often, both parents and school personnel misinterpret the adolescents' desire
for autonomy as a developmental barrier to family involvement. However, studies
have indicated that such a desire for autonomy serves as a moderator of preferences
for certain types of involvement over others, rather than as a barrier to any
type of parent involvement (Xu, 2002). Secondary education students believe
that they can do better at school if they know that their families are interested
in their schoolwork and expect them to succeed, thus challenging the prevalent
view that adolescents do not want their parents involved at all.
Also, parent involvement should not be viewed and defined in too narrow terms,
such as direct involvement in homework completion, because the increasingly
complex demands of the high school curriculum would prohibit many parents from
being involved in that way. However, findings reported in this digest indicate
a strong form of parent involvement is expectations. Parents who hold high expectations
for their teens, communicate them clearly and encourage their adolescents to
work hard in order to attain them, can make a difference in students' success.
Teacher Preparation in Family Involvement
Robust teacher preparation for the schools of the 21st century should reflect
the multitude of research findings pointing to the importance that parent involvement
has in all stages of the educational process. However, only a few teacher preparation
institutions have reported offering a course on family involvement, and even
then as an elective. Several institutions report having some topic—usually
parent-teacher conferences—relevant to parent involvement integrated into
another course (Chavkin, in press).
Infused in some other course, or taught separately, preservice teachers should
have a comprehensive picture of the many benefits of a broadly defined parent
involvement, as well as be aware of key areas that can make them more effective
when working with students and their families (Epstein, 2001; Shartrand, Weiss,
Kreider & Lopez, 1997). Especially making teachers who will teach in middle
and high schools—where parent involvement is not an expected part of the
educational process—aware of the influential effects of parent involvement
is essential. For example, required courses about adolescent development should
debunk long-standing myths and inform prospective middle and high school teachers
of the power that parent involvement has to positively affect achievement. Empowered
teachers will empower parents to be involved and expect more from their adolescents.
Empowered parents can inspire their teens to do better at school and in life.
School Practices and Family Engagement
Sometimes we take things for granted or we consider them self-evident when we
should not. Many parents might be surprised to learn that research shows that
they have a strong influence on their teenagers. Simply letting them know is
an important first step. Among other things, schools can encourage parents to
(a) keep open lines of communication with their teens by maintaining family
time to discuss things and share common activities; (b) enforce consistent rules
that help adolescents learn the relationship of independence and responsibility;
and (c) show that education is important by encouraging homework and reading,
knowing the student's teachers, and supporting post-secondary education planning.
In addition to these general recommendations, it is important for schools to
provide specific information and suggestions that are aligned with the broader
curriculum framework and expand learning from the classroom to home and beyond.
In order to further foster better communication between home and school, teachers
should encourage parents to be aware of school policies and the curriculum.
Letting parents know about the best ways to communicate with their teen's teachers
will also promote communication as it lifts some of the confusion that the structural
complexity of secondary schools creates. In addition to printed communications,
there are many fora through which such information can be communicated or reinforced:
parent mentoring programs (especially during times of transition to middle and
then to high school), family resource centers, the school website, brown bag
meetings, or parent-teacher meetings. We should also recognize that school-initiated
communication for specific students tends to take place when adolescents misbehave
or face academic problems. It is critical to expand child-specific communication
to include positive news. Such a strategy will foster a positive climate and
make parents more involved and responsive to future school outreach.
Parent involvement continues being a positive and powerful source of influence
for the achievement of adolescents and young adults. By encouraging parents
to be involved in developmentally appropriate ways, schools can maximize the
benefits for all students by gaining an important ally in their effort not to
leave children behind.
References
Catsambis, S. (2001). Expanding knowledge of parental involvement in children's
secondary education: Connections with high school seniors' academic success.
Social Psychology of Education, 5, 149-177.
Chavkin, N. F. (in press). Preparing educators for school-family partnerships:
Challenges and opportunities. In E. N. Patrikakou, R. P. Weissberg, J. Manning,
H. J. Walberg & S. Redding (Eds.), School-family partnerships: Promoting
the social, emotional, and academic growth of children. New York: Teachers
College Press.
Epstein, J. L. (2001). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing
educators and improving schools. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Patrikakou, E. N., Weissberg, R. P., Redding, S., & Walberg, H. J. (Eds.).
(in press). School-family partnerships: Promoting the social, emotional,
and academic growth of children. New York: Teachers College Press.
Shartrand, A. M., Weiss, H. B., Kreider, H. M., & Lopez, M. E. (1997).
New skills for new
schools: Preparing teachers in family involvement. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
Family Research Project.
Xu, Z. (2002). Do early adolescents want family involvement in their education?
Hearing voices from those who matter most. The School Community Journal,
12, 53-72.
Zill, N., & Nord, C. W. (1994). Running in place: How American families
are faring in a changing economy and an individualistic society. Washington,
DC: Child Trends.
Eva N. Patrikakou
Department of Psychology (M/C 285)
The University of Illinois at Chicago
1007 West Harrison Street
Chicago, IL 60607-7137
Email: epatri1@uic.edu
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